Changing relationships between farmers and heronries

Challenges of managing water bodies as bird sanctuaries inTamil Nadu




Avantika Bhaskar and Jayshree Vencatesan

The state of Tamil Nadu in South India
has had a long history of creating and
managing water bodies, especially in the
plains. (The general term ‘water body’
has been used in this note to avoid con-
fusion resulting from the use of terms
like ‘tanks’, ‘ponds’, ‘wetlands’, ‘lakes’,
etc. in administrative parlance.) This is
attributed largely to the spatial and tem-
poral variance of rainfall distribution in
the state, which is concentrated over the
months of October to December during
the northeast monsoon, and June to Sep-
tember during the southwest monsoon1.
Estimates suggest that there are about
39,200 irrigation water bodies in the
state which serve various purposes such
as irrigation, domestic and livestock use,
fishing, groundwater recharge and flood
control2–4. Started in the 1960s, foreshore
planting by the Tamil Nadu Forest De-
partment on some of the water bodies
was crucial in the creation of a number
of heronries in the state5. A ‘heronry’ is a
general term that refers to nesting colo-
nies of waterbirds like storks, egrets,
herons, cormorants, etc.6. Consequently,
some of the heronries were declared as
bird (wildlife) sanctuaries, with a work-
ing arrangement between the Tamil Nadu
Forest Department and Public Works
Department or Rural Development and
Panchayat Raj Department on aspects of
ownership, management and protection.
This eliminated traditional practices like
desilting of the tank, fishing, firewood
collection, grazing by the locals, etc.
which were earlier regulated by a combi-
nation of self-regulation and prudence as
well as customary rules. Interestingly, all
the 14 bird sanctuaries of the state are
water bodies, and with the exception of
one bird sanctuary in the western district
of Erode, the others are located on or

near the east coast and are a part of a
system of interconnected water bodies.



One of the most well-known bird sanc-
tuaries of the state is the Vedanthangal–
Karikili (thangal = shallow wetland),
which is situated at a distance of approxi-
mately 85 km south of Chennai. The
water body is part of the Lower Palar
Anaicut system and is a nesting ground
for nearly 17 species of waterbirds5.
Vedanthangal is often cited as an example
of community-led conservation, as is the
Koonthankulam–Kadankulam (kulam =
tank) bird sanctuary in Tirunelveli dis-
trict5,7. The bird droppings that enrich the
waters of Vedanthangal–Karikili and
Koonthankulam–Kadankulam are stated
to have served as organic enrichment for
the intensive paddy–horticulture cultiva-
tion in the landscape (Table 1). Systems
to manage the inflow and outflow of
water were evolved by the local zamin-
dar (landlord) in consultation with the
community, and the marginalized sec-
tions within the community were vested
with the responsibility of maintaining the
water body. The zamindar spearheaded
the protection of birds by punishing
hunters and poachers and incentivizing
the households which protected them.
Likewise, a landlord in Koonthankulam
played the role of a custodian of birds,
by incentivizing protection efforts. Over
time, this evolved into a local tradition
with the people desisting from engaging
in activities detrimental to birds. In both
cases, the villages came to be defined by
the birds. Farmers and local communities
around many of the sanctuaries used the
arrival of birds as one of the key indica-
tors to monitor local climate, and this in
many instances assumed the character of
‘divinity’. The association between local
communities, water bodies and birds was

symbiotic with the use of agricultural
fields for foraging by birds and the use of
guano-rich silt from the water body as
fertilizer.



Interactions with the farmers of the
state’s delta region, however, suggest
that there is a need to re-examine the no-
tion of this symbiotic association. For in-
stance, farmers reported that the presence
of birds during the initial phases of
paddy cultivation, especially before the
crop is transplanted, leads to crop dam-
age. They address this issue by creating
noise using ingenious solutions such as
the use of cassette tapes. In various parts
of the world migrant waterfowl, includ-
ing ducks, geese, coots and cranes have
been reported to damage crops like rice,
corn, wheat and soybean by feeding,
trampling and grazing8,9. While Gole10
reports crop damage by Bar-headed
goose to the winter crops in India, man-
aging rice cultivation by flooding rice
fields after harvesting and use of effi-
cient agronomic practices and equipment
can benefit the birds and at the same time
prevent crop losses11. On the flip side,
the presence of birds in the agricultural
areas attracts poachers and hunters,
which results in conflicts with the Forest
Department.



While the agrarian tradition of
Koonthankulam has remained more or
less the same over the last many years, in
Vedanthangal–Karikili there has been a
marked change in land use in recent
years. Due to its proximity to the city of
Chennai and speculative land transac-
tions, agriculture has ceased to be of sig-
nificance around the water body. Large
tracts of temporary and permanent fallow
lands typify the landscape, and the resi-
dent communities wish to capitalize upon
the presence of the birds to create ‘green

Table 1. Details regarding two important bird sanctuaries in Tamil Nadu

OPINION

Bird sanctuary
(BS)



Vedanthangal
Koonthankulam–Kadankulam

Location
(district)



Kancheepuram
Tirunelveli

Area16
(sq. km)



0.30
1.29

No. of nesting
waterbird species5



17
15

Major crops cultivated
around the BS17,18



Paddy, gingelly, groundnut, finger millet,
vegetables



Paddy, groundnut, cotton, banana, vegetables

CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 109, NO. 3, 10 AUGUST 2015

403

OPINION

townships’. As the irrigation service of
the water body becomes redundant, the
guano-enriched water is perceived to be
a problem.



Water bodies that continue to be of
significance to agriculture with large
ayacuts (area under agriculture) such as
Vaduvoor and Karaivetti, are under regu-
lar maintenance by the Public Works
Department, while in contrast, water
bodies with lower service to farmers
such as Udayamarthandapuram or Vet-
tangudi are accorded low priority. Con-
sequently, they are characterized by
silting of feeder tanks and embankments,
derelict sluices and seepage. Agarwal
and Narain12 contend that the deteriora-
tion of tanks began soon after independ-
ence as they were brought under the
Public Works Department that was un-
aware of existing indigenous systems of
managing them, besides inadequate fund-
ing for maintenance. Discussions with
farmer groups and the Panchayats, espe-
cially in Kanchipuram and Ramana-
thapuram districts indicate that this was
one of the many corollaries of the social
reform movement in Tamil Nadu. Water
bodies are valued and protected by local
communities for their ecosystem ser-
vices, especially irrigation, and when the
management is local or perceived to be
inclusive in its approach13. A change in
the management, especially to a system
that is seen to exclude local communities
and their interests may undermine the
intangible ecosystem services provided
by the water body.



With specific reference to bird sanctu-
aries, contamination of water with large
quantities of bird excreta, sediments and
agricultural chemicals run-off results in
high biochemical oxygen demand,
thereby degrading water quality and re-
ducing aquatic diversity, including native
fish species14. The bird sanctuaries were
observed to be infested with invasive fish
species such as Tilapia (Oreochromis
mossambicus) and Giant African Catfish
(Clarias gariepinus), which are capable
of surviving in unfavourable environ-
mental conditions15. The Giant African
Catfish not only decimates other aquatic

fauna, it is also not the food for any of
the birds due to its large size (R. J. R.
Daniels, pers. commun.). Tilapia, which
was introduced in Tamil Nadu to ensure
the availability of low-cost animal pro-
tein, was found to be widely represented
in nearly all the bird sanctuaries. The
cessation of fishing leases and permis-
sions granted by the state departments
has further intensified this problem. In
bird sanctuaries that are part of the
Lower Cauvery basin such as Karaivetti
and Udayamarthandapuram, the major
problem is the loss of area of the water
body due to the extensive growth of
weeds like Eichhornia crassipes and
Ipomoea carnea. In Ramanathapuram
district, water bodies such as Kanjiranku-
lam and Chitirangudi are overrun by
Prosopis juliflora and the planted Acacia
nilotica, aggravating the existing water
stress.



Evidently, the issue of managing the
bird sanctuaries is rather complex not
only due to changing scenarios within
the landscape, but also because of the in-
volvement of multiple line departments
in protecting and managing the water
bodies. Also, the much celebrated sym-
biotic relationship between local com-
munities and birds in Tamil Nadu needs
to be revalidated and contextualized for
the current time-period. Based on the
validation, management systems and
processes need to be evolved as the state
embarks on a mission of ensuring the
wise use of wetlands, which is the key
tenet of the Ramsar Convention on Wet-
lands, 1971.

6. Urfi, A. J., The Painted Stork: Ecology
and Conservation, Springer Science &
Business Media, New York, 2011, p. 163.



7. Krishnan, M., The Vedanthangal Sanctu-
ary for Water – Birds, The Madras State
Forest Department, Madras, 1960, p. 25.



8. Hunt, R. A. and Bell, J. G., In Bird Con-
trol Seminars Proceedings, 1973, Paper
104, pp. 85–101; http://digitalcommons.
unl.edu/icwdmbirdcontrol/104



9. Cleary, E. C., In Prevention and Control
of Wildlife Damage (eds Hyngstrom, S.
E., Timm, R. M. and Larson, G. E.), Uni-
versity of Nebraska Cooperative Exten-
sion Service, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA,
1994, pp. El39–El55; http://icwdm.org/
handbook/birds/Waterfowl.asp



10. Gole, P., Aquila, 1982, 89, 141–149.

11. Stafford, J. D., Kaminski, R. M. and
Reinecke, K. J., Waterbirds, 2010,



33(sp1), 133–150.

12. Agarwal, A. and Narain, S. (eds), Dying



Wisdom: Rise, Fall, and Potential of
India’s Traditional Water Harvesting
Systems, Center for Science and Envi-
ronment, New Delhi, 1997.



13. Mitsch, W. J. and Gosselink, J. G., Ecol.
Econ., 2000, 35(1), 25–33.



14. Tilman, D., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA,
1999, 96(11), 5995–6000.



15. Ganie, M. A., Bhat, M. D., Khan, M. I.,
Parveen, M., Balkhi, M. H. and Malla,
M. A., J. Ecol. Nat. Environ., 2013,
5(10), 310–317.



16. http://www.forests.tn.nic.in/WildBiodiver-
sity/birdsanctuaries.html



17. Care Earth Trust, Wetland Action Plan –
Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary, Tamil
Nadu Forest Department, 2014, p. 113.



18. Care Earth Trust, Wetland Action Plan –
Koonthankulam Bird Sanctuary, Tamil
Nadu Forest Department, 2014, p. 186.



ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. We thank the
anonymous reviewers for their comments.
This note is based on an assignment awarded
to Care Earth Trust by the Tamil Nadu Biodi-
versity Conservation and Greening Project of
the Tamil Nadu Forest Department to evolve
Wetland Action Plans for 11 bird sanctuaries
of the state.



Avantika Bhaskar and Jayshree Vencate-
san* are in Care Earth Trust, #5, Shri
Nivas, 21st Street, Thillaiganga Nagar,
Chennai 600 061, India.



*e-mail: jvencatesan@gmail.com

1.



2.



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4.



5.

Balachandran, S., Asokan, R. and Sri-
dharan, S., J. Earth Syst. Sci., 2006,
115(3), 349–362.

Palanisami, K. and Easter, K. W., Tank
Irrigation in the 21st Century – What
Next? Discovery Publishing House, New
Delhi, 2000, p. 189.



Palanisami, K. and Meinzen-Dick, R.,
Irrig. Drain. Syst., 2001, 15(2), 173–195.
Sakthivadivel, R., Gomathinayagam, P.
and Shah, T., Econ. Polit. Wkly., 2004,
XXXIX(31), 3521–3526.



Subramanya, S., Indian Birds, 2005,
1(6), 126–140.

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CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 109, NO. 3, 10 AUGUST 2015 

One of my favourite places

One of the most charming places close to home is RV, with the most charming people in it as well.



One of those charming people is Shantharam, and I was delighted to find this in the papers.



Green Valley of Learning - The New Indian Express

The munificent shade provided by the banyan tree could function as the classroom. There is no teacher to guide or shout instructions. There aren’t any books, and no rules. The subject of study is all around—perched on trees, camouflaged in the foliage, some preening themselves while others are screeching and cooing. This is the campus of the Institute of Bird Studies & Natural History, a bird sanctuary in Madanapalle, Andhra Pradesh. Both fall under the aegis of Rishi Valley School.

Aligning itself with founder Jiddu Krishnamurti’s ideology of compassion towards all living beings with his observations on birds, animals and nature being well documented, a six-month correspondence course in ornithology was introduced in 1997, much before the institute was set up in 1999.

“The course is open to people from any background. Although professionals in ecology and conservation are taking advantage of it, the course has attracted a lot of retired people and housewives who are pursuing it as a hobby,” says V Shantaram, director of the institute.  

For students, the Rishi Valley School campus is a practical learning ground with its huge tree cover, bird life and other forms of biodiversity. “Krishnamurti planned to develop a world university, but it fell through. Rishi Valley School was started in 1930 in this remote place with barren surroundings except for a centuries-old banyan tree. Tree plantation followed, gaining momentum in the 80s when the revenue department handed over 150 acres of land to the school on lease for afforestation. With an additional habitat of a percolation point that provided rainwater harvesting, bird life on the campus began to grow,” explains Shantaram.

So what came first, the institute or the bird sanctuary? “The latter,” says Shantaram, the credit for which goes to S Rangaswami, naturalist, author and educator at Rishi Valley School. “In the late 90s, Rangaswami found a dramatic increase in the bird life and decided to conduct a survey. He invited people from other places, which is when I came there,” says Shantaram. “From the 70-80 species found here in 1977, we were able to list 150 species, probably due to the positive changes in the habitat. In 1991, Rishi Valley School was declared a bird preserve.”

The bird preserve may not have become the Institute of Bird Studies and Natural History had Rangaswami decided to move on after authoring his book, Birds of Rishi Valley and Regeneration of their Habitats, in 1994. He introduced a correspondence course in ornithology.

The reins of running the institute was later handed over to Shantaram. “Rangaswami invited me to join and I came here in 1978 as the resident ornithologist. From the 175 species when his book was written, the number has grown to 230, which I have documented,” says Shantaram.

The correspondence course is of six months, with students welcome to come to the institute and observe birds as part of the practical component. Shantaram also teaches at the main school. “Students who are 17 and above can join. Once an eight-year-old boy got through the course, while our oldest student was an 80-year-old lady,” he says.

Students have to answer a question paper after the first three months and another at the end of the course, after which they get a certificate. The course fee is “a minimum donation of `1,000. Upon feedback from students and others, the course syllabus is always up for revision,” says Shantaram. The institute’s mascot is the yellow-throated bulbul, “which is special to south India and is listed as ‘threatened’. We keep seeing it here regularly,” he says.

Evolution in front of our eyes

Greater than the sum of its parts | The Economist

LIKE some people who might rather not admit it, wolves faced with a scarcity of potential sexual partners are not beneath lowering their standards. It was desperation of this sort, biologists reckon, that led dwindling wolf populations in southern Ontario to begin, a century or two ago, breeding widely with dogs and coyotes. The clearance of forests for farming, together with the deliberate persecution which wolves often suffer at the hand of man, had made life tough for the species. That same forest clearance, though, both permitted coyotes to spread from their prairie homeland into areas hitherto exclusively lupine, and brought the dogs that accompanied the farmers into the mix.

Interbreeding between animal species usually leads to offspring less vigorous than either parent—if they survive at all. But the combination of wolf, coyote and dog DNA that resulted from this reproductive necessity generated an exception. The consequence has been booming numbers of an extraordinarily fit new animal (see picture) spreading through the eastern part of North America. Some call this creature the eastern coyote. Others, though, have dubbed it the “coywolf”. Whatever name it goes by, Roland Kays of North Carolina State University, in Raleigh, reckons it now numbers in the millions.

The mixing of genes that has created the coywolf has been more rapid, pervasive and transformational than many once thought. Javier Monzón, who worked until recently at Stony Brook University in New York state (he is now at Pepperdine University, in California) studied the genetic make-up of 437 of the animals, in ten north-eastern states plus Ontario. He worked out that, though coyote DNA dominates, a tenth of the average coywolf’s genetic material is dog and a quarter is wolf.

The DNA from both wolves and dogs (the latter mostly large breeds, like Doberman Pinschers and German Shepherds), brings big advantages, says Dr Kays. At 25kg or more, many coywolves have twice the heft of purebred coyotes. With larger jaws, more muscle and faster legs, individual coywolves can take down small deer. A pack of them can even kill a moose.

Coyotes dislike hunting in forests. Wolves prefer it. Interbreeding has produced an animal skilled at catching prey in both open terrain and densely wooded areas, says Dr Kays. And even their cries blend those of their ancestors. The first part of a howl resembles a wolf’s (with a deep pitch), but this then turns into a higher-pitched, coyote-like yipping.

The animal’s range has encompassed America’s entire north-east, urban areas included, for at least a decade, and is continuing to expand in the south-east following coywolves’ arrival there half a century ago. This is astonishing. Purebred coyotes never managed to establish themselves east of the prairies. Wolves were killed off in eastern forests long ago. But by combining their DNA, the two have given rise to an animal that is able to spread into a vast and otherwise uninhabitable territory. Indeed, coywolves are now living even in large cities, like Boston, Washington and New York. According to Chris Nagy of the Gotham Coyote Project, which studies them in New York, the Big Apple already has about 20, and numbers are rising.

Even wilier

Some speculate that this adaptability to city life is because coywolves’ dog DNA has made them more tolerant of people and noise, perhaps counteracting the genetic material from wolves—an animal that dislikes humans. And interbreeding may have helped coywolves urbanise in another way, too, by broadening the animals’ diet. Having versatile tastes is handy for city living. Coywolves eat pumpkins, watermelons and other garden produce, as well as discarded food. They also eat rodents and other smallish mammals. Many lawns and parks are kept clear of thick underbrush, so catching squirrels and pets is easy. Cats are typically eaten skull and all, with clues left only in the droppings.

Thanks to this bounty, an urban coywolf need occupy only half the territory it would require in the countryside. And getting into town is easy. Railways provide corridors that make the trip simple for animals as well as people.

Surviving once there, though, requires a low profile. As well as having small territories, coywolves have adjusted to city life by becoming nocturnal. They have also learned the Highway Code, looking both ways before they cross a road. Dr Kays marvels at this “amazing contemporary evolution story that’s happening right underneath our nose”.

Whether the coywolf actually has evolved into a distinct species is debated. Jonathan Way, who works in Massachusetts for the National Park Service, claims in a forthcoming paper that it has. He thinks its morphological and genetic divergence from its ancestors is sufficient to qualify. But many disagree. One common definition of a species is a population that will not interbreed with outsiders. Since coywolves continue to mate with dogs and wolves, the argument goes, they are therefore not a species. But, given the way coywolves came into existence, that definition would mean wolves and coyotes should not be considered different species either—and that does not even begin to address whether domestic dogs are a species, or just an aberrant form of wolf.

In reality, “species” is a concept invented by human beings. And, as this argument shows, that concept is not clear-cut. What the example of the coywolf does demonstrate, though, is that evolution is not the simple process of one species branching into many that the textbooks might have you believe. Indeed, recent genetic research has discovered that even Homo sapiens is partly a product of hybridisation. Modern Europeans carry Neanderthal genes, and modern East Asians the genes of a newly recognised type of early man called the Denisovans. Exactly how this happened is unclear. But maybe, as with the wolves of southern Ontario, it was the only way that some of the early settlers of those areas could get a date.

The Charm of Sinnadorai's Bungalow | The Pollachi Papyrus

The Charm of Sinnadorai's Bungalow | The Pollachi Papyrus

It was Hot and sultry in Madras. Our son was home on summer vacations, and I was away from home with long days at work. A family getaway beckoned, and it was then I thought of The Sinnadorai’s Bungalow, Valparai. I had to be in Coimbatore on work, and with a mere 3 hours of drive from the city, it was an added bonus. Decisions were made with rare family unanimity and speed, as we set on our journey towards Valparai. A breezy drive through the rustic villages of Pollachi and the scenic 40 hair pin bends after Aliyar brings us to Iyerpadi on the Pollachi – Valparai main road.

The “Sinnadorai’s Bungalow” was well signposted as we sheepishly followed the boards, descending into the heart of the tea country here. Every hill was covered with tea and the ubiquitous Silver Oak trees. We finally arrived at the bungalow, and my excitement grew as the mist gusted across the driveway. Bulbuls chirped in the trees, spotted doves cooed and squirrels ran across! It was like arriving in Paradise – I could get used to this, I thought. The most enamored of the lot, surprisingly, was my son, who at this point thinks a tea plantation job is a good career option!

Credits – Sinnadorai’s Bungalow

Greeted with a several-course hot lunch, which we downed with great gusto, we sat in the lunch room, and the skies opened up. It was such a wonderful start to the holiday – a perfect wind down to sit and watch the rain, as the delightful thought of being here crossed my mind.

Credits – Ambika Chandrasekar

The Sinnadorai’s bungalow dates back to 1929, one of the earliest residences of the area, part of the Paralai estate of Parry Agro plantations. We stayed in the room called Sullivan with a lovely view down the valley. Tea estates have long been considered “green deserts” which are seemingly green, but not really supporting a thriving ecosystem. With acres and acres of plantations that are not going to vanish, conservationists here are now working to develop these environments into a more diverse landscapes.

The bedroom at the Bungalow | Credits – Sinnadorai’s Bungalow

The cast of characters at the Bungalow:

Thavam - the night watch here, reminded me of a lighthouse keeper in a PD James mystery set in a remote corner of the British Isles. With his gum boots and quiet air, he keeps vigilant for Gaur, wild dogs and leopards. With a calm presence, he pointed out the Gaur to us every morning.

Indian Gaur | Credits – Ambika Chandrasekhar

Murugan - the Man Friday of the Bungalow assisted us on our walks. He loves the forest here and has a wonderful positive air to him. With a ready smile and an earnest enthusiasm, he filled us in on the ecological history of the place.

The Restaurant at the Bungalow | Credits – Sinnadorai’s Bungalow

Ashirvad - the cook has a special magical touch to his dishes – with his coconut soufflés and caramel puddings being the most irresistible. He and Rani together worked the kitchen as they planned and executed their menus. Rani’s tomato chutney was a favourite of ours too and we consumed vast quantities of it, with everything, including the toast!

Uma - the housekeeper accommodated our laggard, malingering ways with cheer and efficiency – I think we were late for every meal! Panchavarnam was her cheerful assistant, and her spry, slight frame could be seen through the windows as she went about sweeping and cleaning up.

Birds and Wildlife:

Malabar Whistling Thrush | Credits – Harishvara Venkat

The resident Malabar Whistling Thrush entertained us every morning and evening with its shrill melancholic whistles. Another neighbour who loved those earthworms was the Orange headed Thrush. The Early morning walk was rewarded with an encounter with a ruddy mongoose ambling across the path. A Green forest lizard would regularly sun itself on the stone driveway, keeping a wary eye on us. The Spotted Doves were also in plenty, waddling across our paths, reluctant to fly until we were real close. They cooed to each other through the day. The days were filled with butterflies and the nights with moths, of various sizes shapes and colours.

“But all of this faded into the background that one morning , when we saw the Great Indian Hornbill family.”

Murugan had taken us on a walk into the neighbouring coffee plantation with the hope that we would see them. Our walks skirted the thick patches of shola forest that separated the estates, and served as refuge for the wild animals by day. Our continued existence depended on their wellness, and I sent out a silent thanks to NCF and all those wonderful bodies working hard to preserve them. Some heavy swooshing in the trees and I saw a pair of Malabar Grey hornbills.

Malabar Grey Hornbill | Credits – Keerthana Balaji

My luck (which is usually abysmal with wildlife) was not so bad I thought. And there it was! From a sudden movement of a branch, which i assumed to be a langur, emerged a yellow casque! “It was the Great Indian Hornbill! The magnificent bird was right in the middle of the tree, and we waited patiently, fixating our eyes on that bright yellow casque.”Murugan in a low tone said “It is a juvenile. The parents are probably around.” Sure enough there was a harsh call, so loud, it must have been heard in the next estate.

Great Pied Hornbill | Credits – Prakash Ramakrishnan

“With a whoosh that would put Batman to shame, the parent hornbills appeared on the scene! What a sight it was!”

They moved from tree to tree, in search of fruits, putting on an incredible show with the majestic display of their wingspan. As we returned to our rooms, we had a run of the whole house for our entire stay, and sprawled ourselves across the library with book choices from Pamuk and Amitav Ghosh to Bhagat and Collins. It was quite a luxury I admit and a bonus of travelling off – season.

Credits – Ambika Chandrasekhar

We spent that last week of July, walking, birding, reading, eating and sleeping. The sunsets here are spectacular on the days when there were no clouds in the horizon, and the bungalow was well located to enjoy the beautiful skies and the layers of hills and mountains, each with different depths and shades.

The view of Grasshills from Sinnadorai’s | Credits – Harishvara Venkat

It was time to leave, but not before we had a last look at the Grass Hills. It was a clear, sunny day, and the hills were revealed. The Shola grasslands could be seen in the distance and with that gorgeous spectacle, our splendid holidays came to an end.

Temple elephants

A pet peeve of mine.

"India must perhaps be the only country that has drafted so many acts and laws for animals yet enforces so few of them."

Gods in shackles  - The Hindu

Temple elephants in Kerala, and other parts of the country, have more to do with trade and tourismthan religion, says Rukmini Sekhar
dithyan, his forelimbs deliberately fractured, is permanently handicapped. Peethambaran spends his life chained in the open. Padmanabhan’s hind leg was deliberately broken. He now wobbles around, and is always chained. Keerthy is traumatised after being in isolation for a long time. Nandan, his hind feet bound to a stump and his front legs chained to a tree, has never been released for even an hour in 20 years. Devi has always been chained to one spot, at the entrance to the temple, for 35 years and has never moved freely. Mukundan’s hind legs are fractured… The list goes on.
This is the plight of the elephants of Guruvayur in Kerala, a temple town near Thrissur that attracts a sea of pilgrims round the year. Each of these animals has been destroyed in one way or another. Most of them just want to stand upright, have a drink of water, stretch their bruised and pus-filled legs, or simply walk freely.
Were the minders of these elephants aware of World Elephant Day that was observed on August 12 or that Ganesh Chaturthi was celebrated on September 17? No.
Recently, the British newspaper, the Daily Mail , published a stomach-churning article by journalist Liz Jones on the plight of these elephants (“The terrible plight of Indian elephants” — http://goo.gl/of9cTl) that drew criticism for what was seen as an example of sham journalism because she had patently not really witnessed the things she wrote about. But long before she wrote her piece, there have been reports by three official committees that investigated the abuse of elephants at Guruvayur.
The findings of the third committee, headed by Kerala’s poet-activist, Sugathakumari, were published in the report titled “Report on the Welfare and Veterinary Status — Captive Elephants at Punnathur Kotta, Guruvayur Devaswom Board Thrissur, Kerala”. Authorised by the Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) and conducted by Dr. Arun A. Sha of Wildlife SOS and Suparna Bakshi Ganguly of Compassion Unlimited Plus Action, it is field-based, scientific and empirical.
The investigation was carried out over three days, in August 2014, using field observations and a detailed examination of veterinary records. Ownership certificates, work registers, diet charts, interviews with staff and mahouts, records of offences, details of elephant donations and donors and even dung samples were all studied to evaluate the condition and the physiological and psychological profiles of the elephants.
The facts reveal a violation of several laws and guidelines such as The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, Project Elephant’s Guidelines for Care and Management of Captive Elephants 2008, the Central Zoo Authority of India’s guidelines called Zoos in India — Legislation, Policy, Guidelines and Strategy 2014, The Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2002, the Performing Animals Rules 1973, and Kerala Captive Elephants (Management and Maintenance) Rules 2012. India must perhaps be the only country that has drafted so many acts and laws for animals yet enforces so few of them.
The report shows that all the elephants at the Punnathur Kotta sanctuary are chained with no exercise. Often, these chains cut into the skin or become embedded in the flesh and have to be surgically removed. The animals are in complete solitude for about 23 hours; some are chained by one hind and one fore leg, while for others it is the hind legs and one fore leg.
The animals stand for hours in slush, mud and dung which is tragic as elephants are mammals that roam freely over stretches of land in closely-knit herds. In Guruvayur, they are exposed to the elements throughout the year as there are only eight sheds available. Very often, they are tethered to the same spot, where they eat and defecate resulting in festering infections such as septicemia and foot rot apart from tuberculosis, lung infections and heart conditions. Many try to break free from their shackles and exhibit what is scientifically called “stereotyped behaviour”. There are no enrichments like allowing them access to water bodies, dust or mud baths.
The fact is that keeping temple elephants has little to do with religion and everything to do with trade and tourism. “Perhaps it may be easier to comprehend, although not condone, why these gentle giants are exploited in the name of culture and religion when you consider the significant revenue these elephants generate for the Guruvayur temple. It is also easier to understand why the Guruvayur Devaswom Board encourages the hiring and use of its elephants, and disregards stern warnings against such practices by the Government of India,” says Mr. V.K. Venkitachalam, Secretary of the Heritage Animal Task Force.
According to the AWBI report, between January 2014 and April 2014, out of a total of 120 festival days, 38 out of the 59 elephants were leased out. In the four-month span, 52-year-old elephant Gopikrishnan worked for 77 days. In the case of a celebrity elephant like the 74-year-old Padmanabhan, he was made to toil for 18-20 hours, earning up to Rs.7 lakh for the temple in a day, even though his retirement age is 65. The revenue that festival elephants generate annually adds up to Rs.3.7 crore. The revenue for 2014-15, including donations by devotees, sponsorships and elephant camps, is estimated to touch Rs.7 crore. The “work” the animals have to do includes being loaded and unloaded from trucks, chained in alien environments, exhibited to the public for up to 10 hours a day, being subject to stress and the noise of musical instruments, facing surging, chaotic crowds, submitting to the dreaded metallic bull-hook or ankush , being adorned with heavy coverings in the oppressive heat, and having to do with no proper food, water or shelter. Welfare is secondary to the elephant’s commitment to a festival schedule, often with no intervals for rest. “Cultural practices cannot be considered greater than the laws of the land, whereby the exploitation of India’s heritage animal is condoned,” adds the AWBI report.
The commonest excuse to keeping temple elephants in captivity is “tradition”. Any exposé on the condition of these elephants is considered an attack on Hinduism. “But, it is the opposite of Hinduism. There were no elephants at that temple before 1969, which is when Hindu families, experiencing hard times due to land reforms, donated their elephants because they could no longer care for them,” says Mr. Venkitachalam. “With the West Asian oil boom of the 1970s, when lots of Indians became rich, the act of donating a ‘sacred’ elephant became a status symbol. Using elephants in festivals only started in the mid-1970s. This is not ancient, this is new.”
The AWBI report is damning and places the responsibility squarely on the Dewaswom Board. “No institution, however prestigious and powerful, can hope to insulate itself when it is on the wrong side of public opinion on a long-standing issue of humane concern. In just a few short years, the Devaswom’s elephant-keeping model has lost its shine, seen its value downgraded, mishandled tragic incidents involving the brutal assault on the captive elephants, and its reputation being affected by swelling public scepticism of its elephant facility.”
What is required now is to permanently outlaw the practice of incarcerating elephants in temples in India. It is time to act, now.
Rukmini Sekhar is a writer and activist, committed to the protection of animals.

Basho and me

Wanderer, nature poet and philosopher. Matsuo Chūemon Munefusa aka Basho, Haiku Master.

I was reading his Haikus yesterday, and these ones particularly stuck in my head as so apt for the wanderers in our family.

Wake! The sky is light!

let us to the road

again . . .

Companion butterfly!

Copsia-petal

fell in silent dawn . . .

spilling

A water-jewel.

(The original Basho was with Camellia) 

Ah me! I am one

who spends his little

breakfast

Morning-glory gazing.

Long conversations 

beside blooming amarylses – 

joys of life on the road.

(The original Basho was with irises) 

In the twilight rain

these brilliant-hued

hibiscus . . .

A lovely sunset

Lady butterfly

perfumes her wings

by floating

Over the orchid.

Silent the old town . . .

the scent of flowers

floating . . .

And evening bell.

I'm a wanderer 

so let that be my name – 

the first winter rain 

PIRANHAS IN THE GODAVARI: HOW INVASIVE SPECIES ARE WREAKING HAVOC

Piranhas in the Godavari: How invasive species are wreaking havoc

One day in December 2012, a boy and his father made their way from Mylapore’s famous Kapaleeswarar temple to the temple tank across the road.

The temple is one of Chennai’s architectural highlights and, depending on who you believe, was built by the Pallavas in the 7th century CE or by the kings of Vijayanagar in the 16th century (after the original was destroyed by the Portuguese).

The man had grown up in Chennai when it was Madras and had accompanied his parents to the temple many times. Now, on a visit to Chennai in the only month of the year when the weather in the city is pleasant, he was making sure his son saw the temple. That wasn’t the only reason, though. The previous night, the man’s mother had mentioned that the temple tank was teeming with fish and the boy, like all boys his age (he was 10), wanted to see them.

The temple tank was fenced in—it was clean on account of that—and the boy and his father bought a packet of puffed rice (pori) to feed the fish near the gate. Like all temple tanks in south India, this one had steps leading down to it from all sides. They walked down the steps; the tank was full and the lower steps were underwater.

The man and his son stood a few steps above the water and sprinkled the puffed rice on it. A twisting, churning mass of fish appeared. Some were as long and thick as the man’s arm. They were eel-like, black and slimy. A few intrepid ones jumped up to a partially dry step to get at errant pieces of puffed rice and then wiggled their way back down into the water.

“African catfish,” said the boy. “They have taken over.”

The man told me this story.

I thought of him when I read about the piranha someone found in the Godavari.

Tale of a survivor

The African catfish (Clarias gariepinus), aka the African sharptooth catfish, is native to Africa and West Asia, where it is found pretty much everywhere—in lakes and rivers, swamps, agricultural canals, wells, even drains. Its numbers are so vast that the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) hasn’t bothered to assess its conservation status.

Adults can grow up to 5ft in length and weigh up to 60kg. Bigger African catfish have been reported. They have wide mouths with four barbels—whisker-like protrusions on the side of the mouth—that give them a sinister look. They can swallow mid-sized water birds whole. And they are survivors.

Maybe because of the fish’s African origin, it can crawl on dry land, moving from one pool to another. It can also survive in shallow mud, dormant, waiting for the next rains, when it emerges.

These qualities and its size made it a popular choice for aquaculture in Africa in the 1970s. In the 1980s, it was introduced to other parts of the world. Scientists say it probably came to India via Bangladesh, probably courtesy the well-intentioned efforts of some development organization that was trying to help Bengali farmers.

In India, it was first seen in Andhra Pradesh, one of the hot spots of the Indian aquaculture boom of the 1990s. It has since colonized major rivers and water bodies, destroying native fish stock. It has invaded wetlands; recent studies show the African catfish preying on small terrestrial birds, aquatic birds and turtles in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, and Periyar National Park on the Tamil Nadu-Kerala border.

Interestingly, a Red-bellied piranha made the headlines earlier this year when it was caught by a fisherman in the Godavari in Rajahmundry, Andhra Pradesh.

According to ichthyologist (fish scientist) A. Biju Kumar, “Carnivorous and voracious feeders such as the Bighead carp, African catfish and the infamous aquarium fish, the Red-bellied piranha, were imported into India illegally in the 1990s from different parts of the world.”

Kumar sensed the threat quite early when he commented in a 2000 monograph that “if these exotic fishes establish themselves in natural water bodies, they may become a serious threat to the smaller indigenous fish species and invertebrates. Swarms of piranhas confined to small water bodies may attack large animals and even human beings”.

Bollywood may have a field day with that, but the thought—of both piranhas attacking humans and a Bollywood horror film on piranhas—isn’t funny.

The alien invasion

The Himalayan tahr was introduced for sport in New Zealand. Favourable conditions led it to multiply and spread across the Southern Alps. The tahr was also introduced for sport in North America, Argentina and South Africa.

Photo: Ananda Banerjee/Mint
Photo: Ananda Banerjee/Mint



Six macaques were brought to Florida for the shooting of the 1939 hit film Tarzan Finds a Son
! The monkeys, the commonest in north India, escaped from captivity and it is now estimated that their number has grown to more than 1,000.

The beautiful gulmohar tree was introduced as an ornamental tree in Mumbai in around 1840 from Mauritius (where, in turn, it had been introduced from exotic Madagascar). In a few years, the red-flowering trees spread across the country.

The lanky, fast-growing eucalyptus is considered hazardous to nature for its thirst for water and damaging soil fertility. It was introduced into India in the 1970s for social forestry schemes and to provide pulpwood for the paper industry. Later, scientists found out that it is a host for cryptococcosis, a fungus that affects the human nervous system.

Examples of species outside their native range abound all over the planet. In science, these are known as biological invasions facilitated by humans.

The various species that have been introduced in lands away from their homeland have threatened or thrived at the cost of native biological diversity. These are known as invasive alien species. The broad consensus among scientists and conservationists is that these are a major threat to the biodiversity of the planet. However, not all non-native species are invasive; for instance, the ornamental palm trees that dot avenues in luxury hotels in India are harmless.

“We know little of the factors which lead to biological invasions, making it difficult to predict which species will become invasive and where invasion will occur,” writes Alan Hamilton in the book Plant Invaders: The Threat to Natural Ecosystems. “It does, however, seem certain that the threat of invasions is growing, as more and more species of plants are moved around the world, planted in gardens or used in agriculture or forestry. Often, very little thought is given to the risks of plant invasion, for example by those promoting widespread use of fast-growing leguminous trees in agro-forestry schemes in the tropics.”

Invasive species span the taxonomical spectrum—from microbes to plants to animals. According to the Convention for Biological Diversity, “The biological invasion of alien species is the second worst threat to biodiversity after habitat destruction.”

The India Biodiversity Portal, managed by a consortium of institutions and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), is running a campaign to map the distribution of alien invasive species in India. And there are many.

Dead as the dodo

For millennia, humans have been introducing plants, animals and other organisms around the world. Historically, as humans colonized the world, they brought along species with them. Dogs, cats, horses, rats and mice were the most common, as were different species of edible plants. Many species got naturalized over time, such as India’s favourite vegetable, the potato. Its origins are in Peru and Bolivia in South America.

Ships have been integral to humanity for discovery, conquest, trade and travel between continents. Between the 15th and 18th centuries, when Europe was at the pinnacle of power, a succession of famous seafaring explorers such as Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Sir Francis Drake and Sir Walter Raleigh travelled far and wide to redraw the map of the world. This period was also known as the Age of Discoveries. The efforts of these explorers resulted in a new map of the world emerging, but it also led to several species travelling to far lands.

The results were shocking.

The last dodo, one of largest species of pigeons, vanished from the island of Mauritius in the 17th century because its habitat was destroyed by the introduction of animals brought by humans. “Since that time, 133 more bird species have become as dead as the dodo. Introduced mammals are responsible for 90% of all bird extinctions since 1500,” states Don Stewart, director, Pacific region, Birdlife International, on the NGO’s website.


Today, Australia is trying to exterminate two million feral cats that threaten the continent’s small mammals and birds such as the Golden bandicoot and Greater bilby. The cost is estimated to be around A$6 million. Australia had previously exterminated the house crow.

New Zealand, like other island nations (their species are endemic and face greater threat from invaders) takes a dim and aggressive view of invasive species as detailed in a recent narrative in The New Yorker.

It’s not only the birds and the bees. Deadly viruses—invisible species—also travelled with European explorers to the ‘New World’. The most fatal was smallpox, which wiped out most of the indigenous people in America. Some other disease-spreading viruses included the influenza, measles and whooping cough viruses.

In the modern context, another source for growth of alien pathogens is the exotic pet trade. The number of people buying animals as pets and the number of different species being imported is increasing. These exotic pets are sometimes known to be the carriers of diseases such as West Nile Virus, swine flu, Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Ebola, which affect humans and domestic and wild animals.

Travelling the world

Transoceanic travel has increased a billion times, constantly moving human, cargo and biota (both intentionally and accidentally) from one place to another.

“World trade has become the primary driver of one of the most dangerous and least visible forms of environmental decline: Thousands of foreign, invasive species are hitch-hiking the global trading network aboard ships, planes and railroad cars, while hundreds of others are travelling as commodities,” wrote scientist Christopher Bright in his book Life Out of Bounds: Bio-invasion in a Borderless World. “The impact of these bio-invasions can now be seen on every landmass, in nearly all coastal waters (which comprise the most biologically productive parts of the oceans), and probably in most major rivers and lakes. This biological pollution is degrading ecosystems, threatening public health and costing billions of dollars annually. Confronting the problem may be now be as critical an environmental challenge as reducing global carbon emissions.”

In the science journal Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, Harold Mooney, a noted American ecologist, and Laura Meyerson, associate professor of habitat restoration ecology at the University of Rhode Island, wrote, “Through the years, the pace of this process has increased with modern trade, travel and technology, so that biological invasions have become a consequence of globalization.”

The worst agent propagating the spread of alien species is maritime trade. As you read this, the global shipping industry is releasing thousands of species in alien waters. Oil tankers, container freight ships and submarines have ballast tanks. The water in these tanks, known as ballast water, stabilizes ships for a safe journey. However, the ballast water carries local aquatic species—exotic plants, animals, viruses and bacteria—that get discharged every time the ship reaches a new port in a different part of the world.

It is estimated that large ships carry more than 200,000 cubic metres of water, equivalent to the water in 2,000 Olympic-sized swimming pools. Every year, ballast tanks move 10 billion cubic metres of water from port to port.

“Every day some 3,000 to 10,000 different species are thought to be riding the ballast tanks,” Bright wrote, adding, “This leads to a homogenization of estuary and bay life, through survival of the fittest come to dominate one coastline after another, slowly eroding the biological diversity of the planet’s coastal zones and jeopardizing their ecological stability.”

Invasion biology

Throughout the 19th century, scientists made notes of introduced species in various places. Prominent among them were Swiss botanist Augustin de Candolle, his son Alphonse and English botanist Hewett C. Watson.

A century later, James Ritchie in Scotland and George M. Thomson in New Zealand wrote masterful, systematic tabulations of introduced species in The Influence of Man on Animal life in Scotland (1920) and The Naturalisation of Animals and Plants in New Zealand (1922), according to Daniel Simberloff, director, Institute for Biological Invasions, University of Tennessee, and author of Invasive Species: What Everyone Needs To Know.

In 1958, British ecologist Charles Elton produced an immensely popular work on alien species based on a series of BBC radio shows—The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants. But it wasn’t until the 1980s that the study of invasive species became a discipline in its own right. Elton’s work addressed many of the ecological issues that we are facing today.

“In 1982, the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE), an arm of the International Council of Scientific Unions, recognized a growing number of reports of environmental problems caused by biological invasions and an absence of any sort of synthetic, scientific overview of the phenomenon. This led to the launch of modern invasion biology as a scientific field,” comments Simberloff.

At present, it is estimated that the US has more than 6,000 introduced species and there are 12,122 species listed on the European invasive species gateway, known as Delivering Alien Invasive Species in Europe (DAISIE). According to the Global Invasive Species Database, here are the world’s 100 worst invasive species.

The Indian experience

India has its share of invasive species.

Major plant introductions in the country can be traced to the establishment of the East India Company’s botanical garden in 1786. In a short span of eight years, the company introduced around 300 plant species in the Calcutta botanical garden.

But there’s no consensus on the number of invasive species in the country.

In August 2004, during a workshop held at Banaras Hindu University’s botany department to discuss alien invasive species and biodiversity in India, scientists claimed that 40% of Indian plant species were alien and 25% invasive.

The Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive Species Network (APFISN) reports that over the years, a number of forest invasive species (FIS) have been introduced in India without a consideration of the consequences. In time, many of the invasive species became naturalized in India and started being used for various purposes. APFISN identifies 111 FIS under the floral (weeds and plants), entomological (insects) and pathogenic (fungi) categories.

C. Sudhakar Reddy, at the forestry and ecology division of the National Remote Sensing Centre, Hyderabad, put the number of invasive alien flora species at 173 in his 2008 report Catalogue of Invasive Alien Flora of India.

A study titled The Management of Alien Species in India by zoologist Fatik Baran Mandal, published in the International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation (2011), states that about 324 alien fish species had been introduced in India, including 291 ornamental fishes, 31 aquaculture fishes and two larvicidal fishes for killing mosquito larvae. Among these invasive specie are the brown trout, rainbow trout, African catfish, common carp, Mozambique tilapia and mosquito fish—all listed among the worst invasive fish species in the world.

The Mozambique tilapia is reportedly endangering native fish stocks in the Moyar river in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Periyar lake in Periyar Tiger Reserve, Thenmala river in Shenduruney Wildlife Sanctuary, Godavari river in Papikonda National Park and Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary.


A WWF-India report, The Terai Arc Landscape in India (2005), reveals that 18% of Indian plant species are alien. The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations estimated that out of about 45,000 species of plants recorded in India, nearly 1,800 are alien. Among arthropods (including insects), out of the known 54,430 species in India, nearly 1,100 are alien.

Intermixed growth

Whatever the number, according to the Wildlife Institute of India (WII), the problem of invasive species is yet to be tackled at the state or national level in a holistic manner.

Alien species affect forestry, agriculture, fisheries and aquaculture. According to the FAO, invasive species, especially weeds, are a serious problem for forestry and agriculture and have become an environmental issue. In flora (particularly weeds), it is also very difficult to distinguish between native and exotic species as they grow intermixed.

Among the invasive plants, the Lantana is regarded as one of the 10 worst invasive species in the world. The genus has more than 100 species, among which 25 have been recorded in India. “Lantana is one of the world’s worst weeds of South American origin that threatens native biodiversity of forest ecosystems across India,” wrote Amit Love, Suresh Babu and C.R. Babu in their monograph Management of Lantana, An Invasive Alien Weed in Forest Ecosystems of India.

“It was introduced into India as a garden ornamental plant in 1807 and now has virtually invaded all the tropical and subtropical regions of India,” they wrote. “Although attempts have been made to control Lantana by physical, chemical and biological methods, there is no success either in its control or the prevention of its spread. No effective management strategy is yet available for the containment of this alien weed.”

Parthenium, another harmful exotic weed, is notorious for its rapid spread. It is native to the tropical and sub-tropical regions of Mexico, Central and South America and probably entered India in the beginning of the 20th century through contaminated grain, but went unrecorded for many decades. It was first recorded as a weed near Pune in 1951 and now has colonized river banks, and open and fallow fields, leading to loss of natural habitats, forage production and decline in biodiversity.

Once this species takes over an area, native grass and herbs cannot compete for light and nutrients. Parthenium was reported to cause a yield loss of up to 40% in several crops. It is known to be a menace to agriculture. The weed is also allergenic to human and animal health and causes respiratory problems such as asthma.

Another tropical American weed, Mikania micrantha, was introduced in India after World War II to camouflage airfields. Since then, the species has spread across the subcontinent. Mikania reduces the growth and productivity of several crops plants such as sugarcane, maize, rice, pineapple, cotton, tea and coffee. Infestation by the weed in natural forests in the north-east has caused large-scale habitat destruction.

Infestation by invasive aquatic weed is another major cause of concern in India. Kariba weed (Salvinia molesta) and water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) are known to choke freshwater bodies and wetlands across India, putting farmers and paddy cultivation in jeopardy. Salvinia made its entry in India before 1900, while the water hyacinth was introduced as an ornamental pond plant from the Amazon basin in the 1890s. In recent years, a group of scientist has put water hyacinth to good use—to treat polluted water.

Foraging for food

A recent WII report, Human-Wildlife Interactions and Invasive Alien Species in India (2015), says the reduction in native food plants due to an increase in the range of invasive species is one of the reasons for the straying of wild herbivores in search of food.

Take the case of rhinos straying out of the Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary in Assam. Invasive alien species such as Desmodium
triflorum (Creeping Tick-trefoil), Cardiospermum halicacabum (balloon plant), Ipomea carnea (pink morning glory) and Argemone mexicana (Mexican poppy) in Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary are rapidly increasing in cover and competing with native fodder species, leading to an increase in crop-raiding incidents by rhinos. Similarly, the increase in Lantana cover has resulted in decreased habitat use by elephants in the dry deciduous forest of Mudumalai Tiger Reserve.

Elephant completely dwarfed by Lantana. The front has been cleared for wildlife viewing. Photo: Ramki Sreenivasan/Conservation
Elephant completely dwarfed by Lantana. The front has been cleared for wildlife viewing. Photo: Ramki Sreenivasan/Conservation



The WII study compiles a list of important alien invasive species that pose threat to different ecosystems. They are:

Terrestrial Ecosystem: Lantana camara, Mikania micrantha (bitter vine), Parthenium hysterophorus, Prosopis juliflora, Leucaena leucocephala, Chromolaena, Ageratum, Cassia tora, Xanthium strumarium and Achatina fulica.

Islands Ecosystem (Andaman and Nicobar): Axis axis (spotted deer) and Hoplobatrachus tigerinus (Indian bullfrog).

Freshwater Ecosystem: Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth), Ipomea carnea (pink morning glory), Mozambique tilapia and Clarias gariepinus (African catfish).

Marine Ecosystem: Kappaphycus alvarezii (a species of seaweed).

But history can’t be blamed for the spread of all invasive species. In the past 25 years, at least five species of insect and mite pests have invaded India, affecting agricultural, horticultural and forest production. The study Invasive Alien Insects and Their Impact on Agro Ecosystem by Y.H. Sujay, H.N. Sattagi and R.K. Patil, department of agricultural entomology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka, lists these following invasive insects in India: Woolly apple aphid (1889), San Jose scale (1911), Lantana bug (1915), cottony cushion scale (1921), potato tuber moth (1937), diamond-back moth (1941), Pine woolly aphid (1970), Subabul psyllid (1988), serpentine leaf miner (1990), coffee berry borer (1990), spiraling whitefly (1994), silverleaf whitefly (1999) and blue gum chalcid (2006).

In 2009, a group of scientists flagged the potential of agricultural crops to turn into invasive species. Coffee, one of the most widely cultivated plants and dealt in worldwide, could be one of them.

“The conservation impact of invasive plant species on tropical biodiversity is widely recognized, but little is known of the potential for cultivated crops turning invasive in tropical forest regions,” according to the paper Brewing Trouble: Coffee invasion in relation to edges and forest structure in tropical rainforest fragments of the Western Ghats, India by Atul Arvind Joshi of Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, and Divya Mudappa and T.R. Shankar Raman of the Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysuru. “In this context, coffee needs urgent attention, as it is the most traded global agricultural commodity, cultivated in over 11 million hectares mainly in tropical countries around the world. The occurrence and spread of coffee in tropical rainforests that are globally recognized repositories of biodiversity is a matter of conservation concern.”

“Our study shows how coffee is very much an invasive weed in the Western Ghats tropical rainforests,” the authors wrote.

A fast-changing planet

Island ecosystems are particularly at peril from invasive species.

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are a case in point.

Conservationists estimate that at least 556 species of plants, three snails, four insects, 19 birds, 12 mammals, 13 marine fishes and one virus as invasive alien species, if not more, exist in the Andamans. In 1950, elephants were brought to these islands for logging and forestry work. The timber company responsible for the upkeep of the pachyderms soon went bankrupt.

Around 40-50 elephants were set loose in the forest and, over time, the population increased and turned feral. “Elephants along with Axis deer, another introduced species for sport by the British, led to the disappearance of a few local species and are likely to affect species richness over large parts of the island chain, if not controlled. Satellite images indicate degradation of vegetation where these species occur,” says Rauf Ali, a conservation biologist.

Among the 19 introduced bird species, only six—common myna, house sparrow, blue rock pigeon, grey francolin, house crow and Indian peafowl—now survive in the islands. The common myna and house sparrow are the most successful colonizers in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The myna is even in the ignominious list of IUCN’s 100 worst invasive species.

Not everyone is training their guns on invasive species. Ecologists such as Mark Davis, DeWitt Wallace professor of biology at Macalester College, St Paul, Minnesota, US, have appealed for patience.

“Don’t judge species on their origins, instead assess organisms on environmental impact rather than on the fact that they are natives or non-natives,” wrote Davis. “It is time for scientists, land managers and policymakers to ditch this preoccupation with the native-alien dichotomy and embrace more dynamic and pragmatic approaches to the conservation and management of species—approaches better suited to our fast-changing planet.”

Well-known British nature writer and author Mark Cocker has written compassionately for the Chinese water deer, which is an introduced species in the UK and considered a part of the country’s natural landscape. According to Cocker, the species is much better off in the UK than in its native home range.

Another well-known nature writer, David Quammen, evokes a future in which the earth is a “planet of weeds”. He predicts that because of introductions and extinctions, in the future, the earth as a whole will have fewer species—“the global weed, both plants and animals”.

At a click of the mouse

The digital economy is helping the spread of invasive species.

Science Daily reports that trade in invasive plants is increasingly shifting to the Internet and being conducted on auction platforms like eBay. As a result, one click is all it takes to spread potentially invasive plants from continent to continent—and unintentionally encourage biological invasions.

A new paper by Franziska Humair, Luc Humair, Fabian Kuhn and Christoph Kueffer at Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, Zurich, highlights this. The authors monitored online trade of about two-thirds of the world’s flora on eBay and nine other online trading platforms.

Over the 50 days of the monitoring phase, the researchers found 2,625 different plant species offered for sale on eBay. That corresponds to about 1.4% of the seed plants they were looking for. Of all the plants for sale, 510 are known to be invasive in at least one region somewhere in the world. And out of that group, 35 are on the IUCN’s list of the 100 worst invasive species.

“To put it briefly, the vast majority of invasive species can be easily obtained with just a click of the mouse,” says Franziska Humair.

That may well be how the piranha ended up in the Godavari. “Our preliminary enquiry in the field revealed that this species is now available in most of the aquarium shops and is occasionally found in the fisherman’s catch at Dhawaleshwarm barrage in Rajahmundry. The fish is being cultured around the Godavari river mainly in inland water and canals,” wrote scientists J.A. Johnson, R. Paromita and K. Sivakumar from WII in a report published in January 2014.

Today, global aquarium fisheries and trade is said to be a multimillion dollar industry, with more than 1 billion ornamental fish comprising more than 4,000 freshwater and 1,400 marine species traded annually.

A.K. Singh, director, Directorate of Coldwater Fisheries Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, wrote in a 2014 paper titled Emerging Alien Species in Indian Aquaculture: Prospects and Threats that “generating information on aquarium species is extremely difficult as the trade is secretive in nature”.

Indeed, piranha are available at most shops selling aquarium fish in New Delhi. And no one will tell you how they got there.

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